Hand Stories: Sociopolitical Effects on the Chinese Hand Puppet
by Francisco Carter

The origins of Chinese puppet theater predate written language, stretching back into mythology. While the earliest mentions of the art form are found in 178 C.E., this source only serves as the first written acknowledgement of puppetry in China (Dolby 97). The emergence of puppetry could in fact be much earlier, potentially developing in modern-day India or at least having influence from South Asia. Despite its mysterious origins, puppetry has been a staple of Chinese culture for centuries, reciting Buddhist and even Hindu folklore in its storytelling. Encompassing string marionettes, rod puppets, shadow plays, and budai mu’ou (traditional Chinese hand puppets or “pocket puppets”), the art form has endured through even the most arduous periods of Chinese history.

Amid China’s Cultural Revolution in the 1960s and 70s, the government was wary of the superstitious and religious subject matter often found in local puppet theater. Their reform eventually led to the discontinuance of traditional puppet troupes and the destruction of many historic puppets. Recognizing the influence puppetry had on the populace, some performers were permitted to continue. Administered by government officials, certain troupes were asked to adopt particular themes and rhetoric approved by China’s Communist party (Rault et al.). Chairman Mao Zedong conveyed his aspiration for propaganda in theater when he wrote that “[r]evolutionary art must serve the interests of revolutionary classes, and is a vital part of the machinery which wins or pre- serves revolutionary political power. It is inherently propaganda for the revolution“ (Mackerras 479).

Traditional productions were modified to emphasize devotion to Chairman Mao and the communist party. He- roes in classic performances were now seen reciting the communiqué and saluting at pivotal moments (Mackerras 489). The implementation of military salutes proved to be especially difficult for Chinese hand puppets. Operated by a single hand, a character’s range of motion is limited to the puppeteer’s flexibility. For a puppet to raise its right arm and bend horizontally at the elbow is impossible given the constraints of the anatomical finger. To tackle this dilemma, some puppet troupes innovated new techniques to enable the new movements required in modern repertoire. In the southeastern Chinese province of Fujian, Longxi Puppet Theater developed wooden, lever-operated controls to complement the traditional hand puppet. L-shaped, the device is placed inside the puppet’s sleeve, replacing what would normally be con- trolled by the puppeteer’s thumb. While the non dominant hand remains in the puppet, the dominant hand operates the control, extending from the base of the puppet up into the sleeve. Near the wrist, the puppeteer can press a lever, enabling the character’s arm to bend at the elbow and salute (Yang).

Similar movements that utilize the control were developed for classic characters. The Monkey King is a piece of Chinese literature that follows a band of characters as they journey west in search of enlightenment. Potentially influenced by India’s Hanuman, the protagonist is depicted as a staff-wielding monkey (Rault). As the Cultural Revolution reached its end, themes of Taoist and Buddhist scripture were once again embraced in the story. What were once controls used for saluting were now being used to further evolve classical movements (Yang). Hand puppets of The Monkey King were now able to scratch their heads and enter a fighting stance with greater fluidity and realism.

At the end of China’s Cultural Revolution, hidden puppets portraying classical heroes and deities were dug up from beneath the floorboards. Within a short period of time, Chinese hand puppetry had transitioned from traditional repertoire into propaganda, and back to classic storytelling. Technology developed during the Cultural Revolution was implemented back into traditional Chinese culture, an area that was subjected to significant reform.

As technology advanced, artists continued to develop alongside it. With the rise of Chinese hand puppets in film and television, puppeteers were compelled to implement small details that otherwise would not have been detected by live audiences. A shift towards recorded media set forth greater innovation in the form of moving eyes and mouths — effects that typically would have been less prominent in hand puppets. The manipulation of such minute details came as a byproduct and progression of the lever-operated arm control. Upon insertion of the device into the puppet’s sleeve, the operator’s thumb is no longer required to manipulate the arm. Now freed, the thumb is capable of extending to the base of the puppet’s neck, where an assortment of switches steer the eyes.

This interplay between sociopolitical pressures and technological innovation is apparent across all of China’s puppet traditions. Techniques that have been passed down for generations are constantly evolving as puppetry adapts alongside its prospective surroundings. China is once again at a pivotal point, as state-run puppet theaters are leaning towards privatization and puppeteers are faced with another major shift. We will need to wait and see how puppeteers adapt to the rapidly shifting environment.

Francisco Carter is an undergraduate student at the University of Washington. He attended his first UNImA Congress in Chengdu at the age of ten. Now nineteen, he has just finished his junior year majoring in anthropology. His work seeks to apply an anthropological approach to the research and documentation of international puppetry traditions.